They see themselves as the vanguard in a battle for the soul of Britain against extremist Islamist forces — the “enemy within” bent on imposing Sharia. Casuals United announced their arrival on Saturday when a small army of shirt-sleeved, middle-aged men with beer bellies clashed in a flurry of punches and kicks with young Asians in Birmingham city centre.

The group, which is closely affiliated with the far-right English Defence League, insists that it is a peaceful movement representing ordinary working people angered by the sight of Muslims hurling insults at British soldiers on homecoming parades. But if the chants of “England, England” and the aggressive posturing appear familiar, it is because they are.

The members of Casuals United are largely former football hooligans drawn from the terraces and, according to their critics, are essentially the BNP and National Front repackaged. The groupings have attracted the support of BNP activists including Chris Renton, who created the English Defence League website.

Jeff Marsh, the leader of Casuals United, told The Times that the organisation was a “mixed-race group of English people, from businessmen and women, to football hooligans”.

He said: “I came up with the idea to unite football fans to forget their petty rivalries and come together in a national movement. There are a lot of people in their forties and fifties who used to be hooligans but went on to settle down. A lot of young football fans want to get involved.”

A group of men shout anti-islamic chants during a right-wing protest in Birmingham

Mr Marsh, who holds a degree in criminal justice, claims to have support among serving soldiers and points to the activities of army wives on the website Armchair Warriors. “Their men can’t be seen to be supporting us directly,” he said.

The new beast on the far Right came to prominence when its members clashed with anti-fascist protesters in Birmingham on Saturday. Police made 30 arrests and are still studying closed-circuit television footage.

According to the anti-fascist group Searchlight, Casuals United was created after the trouble in March when Islamists demonstrated against troops returning from Afghanistan to Luton. Two months later, members of Casuals United marched through the town and last month they picketed an Islamic roadshow in North London.

Mr Marsh, 44, whose book The Trouble with Taffies is an account of football violence in South Wales, confirmed that the Luton parade had been the catalyst. He said that a generation of former football hooligans were stirred to action by the sight of Muslim extremists abusing the men of the Royal Anglian Regiment.

After the group was outnumbered by United Against Fascism in Birmingham on Saturday, Mr Marsh pledged that it would return to the city on August 30. The group is also planning a protest in Manchester in October.

The Casuals make full use of modern communications, using social networking websites, notably Facebook, where there are about 40 branches, many of which declare allegiance to various football clubs. The Arsenal branch sums up the group’s manifesto, saying that it was formed to “protest peacefully against the Government allowing Islamic Hatemongers to live in our country while raising money for terror abroad, cursing our soldiers and trying to force Sharia law on us”.

Gerry Gable, of Searchlight, said: “We predicted real trouble in Birmingham. They are not a non-violent group. They have been involved in trouble in Luton. There are connections between people who run far-right websites and we know the BNP were actively offering to find them people for both Birmingham and for [a demonstration] in Luton on August Bank Holiday”.

Weyman Bennett, joint secretary of the United Against Fascism group, said: “Nobody should be taken in by the pretence that these marches and rallies are not aimed at whipping up race hatred against Muslims and Asians. They are racist demos and we should not allow them to take place.”

_____

Far-right group, the English Defence League, in disarray after Birmingham fracas

Reported by the Timesonlline.co.uk

August 10, 2009

Police in riot gear attempted to keep the two groups apart

A rightwing group which promised a summer of peaceful demonstrations against British Islamic extremists was in disarray today after its first significant protest ended in violence and 35 arrests.

The English Defence League staged a march near the Bullring shopping centre in Birmingham this weekend but its small band of supporters was drastically outnumbered by anti-fascist campaigners and riot police. The protest ended in violent skirmishes and running battles through the city’s busy shopping streets on Saturday evening.

Members of the League resorted to bitter in-fighting today as supporters labelled the organisers “ridiculous” and the event a “shambles”.

At least three people were injured as hundreds of police, some in full riot gear, broke up fights between anti-Islamic protesters and anti-fascist groups who came to disrupt the demonstration. At one point officers were forced to seal off New Street with a steel barrier

Emily Bridgewater, who was shopping when violence broke out, told the Birmingham Post: “It kicked off very suddenly and there was stampeding and screaming.

“We ended up being herded into Primark, where they brought the shutters down to protect us. It was very frightening.”

Missiles were thrown as the clashes grew more violent

The League publicised its demonstration in the weeks leading up to the march and claimed that another would be held in Luton on August Bank Holiday weekend. It claims all demonstrations will be peaceful with all ethnic groups encouraged to take part.

Despite efforts to promote the event, fewer than 100 were thought to have gathered. Left-wing groups including Unite Against Fascism were alerted to the march and were able to organise a counter demonstration.

One member of the League’s online forum, registered as Adder, wrote: “I support you guys but yesterday was a shambles and you made us English look like an embarrassment. What exactly happened to supposed ‘In the high hundreds’ who were supposed to turn up? I saw the video and it seemed like there was barely 70 of you.

“Holding it such a high profile public place, ridiculous idea [sic]. That’s just asking for normal civilians minding their own business to get attacked.”

Neil Edy, another member of the website, said: “I went to the march … the turn out to the event wasnt good enuf only a few of us were there supporting the cause.”

Another sympathiser, calling himself Bill, said that he had not been able to find the others: “We were in the City most the afternoon, but then left as we had no one to contact and meet with, and we werent the only ones.”

Despite the failure of the first large event, the League insists it will continue to hold demonstrations. Comments on the group’s website, and the affiliated football hooliganism site Casuals United said that the next one would be bigger.

One message on the Casuals United site read: “We will arrange it via the Inner Circles secret forums, so we will arrive unnanounced and neither the police or the scum will know any details.”

Some members may find it more difficult to travel to future demonstrations after West Midlands Police said that they were studying footage of the violence and would consider applying for injunctions against troublemakers.

A police spokesman explained that the English Defence League had not informed local police of their intension to march but said that officers had no power to prevent a demonstration.

The English Defence League claim not to be a racist group and say that they have no ties with the British National Party. One of the websites linked to the League is believed to have been set up by a known BNP member, but that has now been taken down in an apparent attempt to conceal any link.

Nick Griffin, the leader of the BNP, insisted that there was no link with the group. He said: “It’s a potentially very dangerous development. I understand it mainly comes from Luton … which is a tinderbox.”

Paul Ray, who claims to be one of the founding members of the League, says that the group has been taken over by a cabal of extremists including Chris Renton, whose name appears on the list of BNP members leaked last year.

The group, which organises events on its website and through a Facebook group with 198 members, plans to hold its next large official gatherings in Harrow and Luton in August and then in Manchester in October.

]]> http://football-hooligans.info/?feed=rss2&p=608 0 http://football-hooligans.info/?p=602 http://football-hooligans.info/?p=602#comments Thu, 13 Aug 2009 15:00:45 +0000 Hooli-Admin http://football-hooligans.info/?p=602 As reported by expressandstar.com 13/8/09 Simon Evans, Mark Hodgetts and Paul Gregory. Three football hooligans who broke a court order banning them from following Wolves to games have been confined to their homes on matchdays. Curfews will now keep the three at home when their team is in action after they were spotted in Darlaston in the run-up [...]]]>

As reported by expressandstar.com

13/8/09

Simon Evans, Mark Hodgetts and Paul Gregory.

Three football hooligans who broke a court order banning them from following Wolves to games have been confined to their homes on matchdays.

Curfews will now keep the three at home when their team is in action after they were spotted in Darlaston in the run-up to a friendly match in Walsall.

When Simon Evans, Paul Gregory and Mark Hodgetts were quizzed by police, they claimed they had no idea Darlaston was in the borough of Walsall – despite one of them being a postman.

Evans and Gregory were spotted in the beer garden of a Darlaston pub on July 21, before Wolves playing the pre-season friendly against Walsall that same day.

Mark Hodgetts was seen in Asda car park, in St Lawrence’s Way. Royal Mail worker Evans, aged 26, 28-year-old waiter Gregory and binman Hodgetts, 20, all pleaded guilty to failing to comply to a banning order when they appeared at Walsall Magistrates Court on July 28. Hodgetts, who has 17 middle names in honour of Wolves’ 1988-1989 promotion-winning team, and Gregory were previously told custody could not be ruled out because of their previous convictions for football-related violence.

But at Walsall Magistrates Court yesterday, the gang – dubbed fooligans for their stupidity – were handed a curfew and a 12-month supervision order. Mrs Debbie Starrs, defending, said Evans, of Wentworth Road, Bushbury; Gregory, of Wesley Road, Billbrook and Hodgetts, of Hellier Road, Wolverhampton, had been “in the wrong place at the wrong time.” She said: “It is not suggested they had gone to the match or were going to go, or had caused any aggravation.”

All three must now stay at home from 2pm until midnight on Saturdays for the next six months. They will also be confined to their homes from 8pm to 7am on Mondays to Thursdays and on Sundays, while on Fridays, they must be at home from 8pm to 2am. Hodgetts, who was subject to a suspended sentence for a previous conviction of affray, was also ordered to do an extra 20 hours unpaid work. They must each pay £60 in costs. Mrs Lilas Rawling, chairman of the bench, told them: “You need to get yourselves a map of the UK so you can work out exactly where you are allowed to go.”

When the three men last appeared in court, they tried to get an Express & Star photographer to delete their pictures.

Gregory at first donned a balaclava to hide his identity

Noel Gallagher admits to football hooligan past

Oasis man says he was part of a Man City ‘firm’

January 6, 2009

Noel Gallagher has said he used to hang around with members of some of Manchester City’s most notorious football hooligan firms before he signed a record deal.

The star, who was a regular on the Kippax Stand at City’s old Maine Road ground in his youth, said he still keeps in touch with some of the firm members now, reports The Sun.

“I knew all that lot and I still see a few of them today,” he said. “They were quite mad times. Half of us were on the dole.”

Man City hooligan groups The Guv’nors and The Maine Line Service Crew were some of the most notorious and feared firms in the UK during the ’80s.

The Oasis guitarist said he regularly used to wonder if he would get home without injuries after matches.

“The grounds we used to go to 20 years ago were dangerous, especially night games at Leeds and places like that, and wondering whether or not you’d make it home in one piece,” he said

Gallagher also admitted that he tried to start his own chants at Maine Road on several occasions, which he now attributes as being his first dalliance with songwriting.

“I did start a song in the Kippax when I’d had a drink,” said the guitarist. “Probably something like, ‘Everywhere We Go’ or similar and everyone joined in.

“So maybe the first seeds of my songwriting career were sown at the back of the Kippax.”

_____

My hooligan days, by Noel

Reported by thesun.co.uk

NOEL GALLAGHER has revealed he used to kick about with footie hooligans when he was on the dole in Manchester.

The diehard Man City fan confessed that he often found himself at away games with the feared Mayne Line Crew, Under-5s and Young Guvnors in the Eighties.

He said: “I knew all that lot and I still see a few of them today. They were quite mad times. Half of us were on the dole. The grounds we used to go to 20 years ago were dangerous, especially night games at Leeds and places like that, and wondering whether or not you’d make it home in one piece.”

But Noel reckons the experience might have played a part in his decision to become a rock ‘n’ roll star.

He said: “I did start a song in the Kippax (a stand at City’s old Maine Road ground) when I’d had a drink. Probably something like, ‘Everywhere we go’ or similar and everyone joined in.

“So maybe the first seeds of my songwriting career were sown at the back of the Kippax.”

Noel also holds his hands up for forgetting the date of the first game he saw.

He said: “I’d got it in my head it was 1971 when we beat Newcastle 5-1 at Maine Road but I’ve recently looked that game up and it was actually 1975.”

Back when telly was in black and white.

______

Noel Gallagher on Hooligan past

Reported by clashmusic.com

Oasis guitarist and well known Manchester City fan Noel Gallagher has revealed in a new interview that he used to hang around with some of the club’s most notorious football hooligans, it has emerged.

Noel Gallagher has long been an outspoken fan of Manchester City, appearing with brother Liam in a photoshoot decked in the club’s shirts. The guitarist was a regular at the infamous Kippax Stand in the club’s old ground of Maine Road, and was apparently familiar with many of the top casual faces of the day.

“I knew all that lot and I still see a few of them today,” he told British red top The Sun. “They were quite mad times. Half of us were on the dole.”

Manchester City’s casual following was dominated by violent firms such as The Guv’nors and The Maine Line Service Crew, who were feared throughout the UK in the 80s.

“The grounds we used to go to 20 years ago were dangerous, especially night games at Leeds and places like that, and wondering whether or not you’d make it home in one piece,” he said.

Gallagher isn’t the only musician who ran with casuals – Beautiful South star Paul Heaton was involved with Sheffield United’s crew. One facet of Noel Gallagher’s life with the casuals does remain, however, with the Oasis songwriter boasting a massive collection of vintage trainers.

_____

*Foot note

Oasis star Liam Gallagher admits to Gazza attack

Reported by www.mirror.co.uk

2008

As reported by the PressAndJournal.co.uk

11/08/2009

THIRTEEN suspected football hooligans appeared in court yesterday accused of taking part in rioting after a European cup final.

All the suspects – 11 adults and two juveniles – filed into the courtroom at Manchester Magistrates’ Court, with several having to stand at the back of the court with the dock already full.

All are charged with violent disorder after Rangers’ Uefa Cup Final defeat in Manchester in May last year.

Scott McSeveney, 21, of Shotts, North Lanarkshire, and Mark Stoddart, 25, from Glasgow, are also both charged with assault on a police officer. None of the defendants entered pleas.

Andrew Holt, prosecuting, told the court about 150,000 football fans were in the city for the final against Zenit St Petersburg at the City of Manchester Stadium.

Mr Holt said a big screen for fans without a ticket to watch the match failed in the early evening, which seemed to trigger the trouble.

Thousands of drunken Rangers hooligans fought running battles with police as they rampaged through the city centre in more than five hours of trouble.

In separate incidents, two police officers became separated from their units, were surrounded by hooligans, knocked to the ground and kicked and stamped on.

A prosecution application to have all the cases heard before a jury at Manchester Crown Court was accepted by District Judge Alan Berg.

He gave all the defendants unconditional bail to return to the magistrates’ court on October 5 to have their cases formally committed to Manchester Crown Court.

Judge Berg also made an order banning the media from identifying the two juvenile defendants, both aged 17, from Glasgow.

Along with McSeveney and Stoddart, the defendants are Greg McKenna, 22, and Brian McVicar, 19, both of East Kilbride; Gordon Forrest, 35, of Bearsden, Glasgow; James Bell, 42, and John Saunders, 31, both of Cumbernauld; Thomas Murphy, 27, of Greenock; David McCullough, 20, of Burnage, Manchester; David Annette, 34, of Chorley, Lancashire; and Michael Hindle, 21, Leyland, Lancashire. All are charged with violent disorder.

______

Fans in court over Uefa riot

John Scheerhout

As reported by manchestereveningnews.co.uk

By John Scheerhout

______

Scott McSeveney, 21, of Shotts

North Lanarkshire, and Mark Stoddart, 25, from Glasgow, are also both charged with assault on a police officer.

None of the defendants entered pleas.

Andrew Holt, prosecuting, told the court about 150,000 fans were in the city for the final against Zenit St Petersburg.

Thousands of drunken Rangers hooligans fought running battles with police as they rampaged through Manchester city centre in more than five hours of trouble.

In separate incidents, two police officers became separated, were surrounded by hooligans, knocked to the ground and kicked and stamped on.

A prosecution application to have all the cases heard before a jury at Manchester Crown Court was accepted by District Judge Alan Berg.

He gave all the defendants bail to return to the magistrates’ court on 5 October to have their cases formally committed to Manchester Crown Court.

_____

13 fans appear in court over Rangers UEFA Cup Final riot

As reported by dailyrecord.co.uk

Thirteen suspected football hooligans appeared in court today accused of taking part in rioting following a European cup final.

All the suspects – 11 adults and two juveniles – filed into the courtroom at Manchester Magistrates’ Court, several having to stand at the back of the court with the dock already full.

All are charged with violent disorder following Glasgow Rangers’ Uefa Cup Final defeat in Manchester in May last year.

Scott McSeveney, 21, of Shotts, North Lanarkshire, and Mark Stoddart, 25, from Glasgow, are also both charged with assault on a police officer.

None of the defendants entered pleas.

Andrew Holt, prosecuting, told the court about 150,000 football fans were in the city for the final against Zenit St Petersburg at the City of Manchester Stadium.

Mr Holt said a big screen for fans without a ticket to watch the match failed in the early evening.

“This seemed to be the trigger for widespread disturbances throughout the city centre,” he said.

Thousands of drunken Rangers hooligans fought running battles with police as they rampaged through Manchester city centre in more than five hours of trouble.

In separate incidents, two police officers became separated from their units, were surrounded by hooligans, knocked to the ground and kicked and stamped on.

A prosecution application to have all the cases heard before a jury at Manchester Crown Court was accepted by District Judge Alan Berg.

He gave all the defendants unconditional bail to return to the magistrates’ court on October 5 to have their cases formally committed to Manchester Crown Court.

Judge Berg also made an order banning the media from identifying the two juvenile defendants, both aged 17, from Glasgow.

Along with McSeveney and Stoddart, the other defendants are Greg McKenna, 22, of East Kilbride, Lanarkshire; Brian McVicar, 19, of East Kilbride; Gordon Forrest, 35, of Bearsden, Glasgow; James Bell, 42, of Cumbernauld, Glasgow; Thomas Murphy, 27, of Greenock; David McCullough, 20, of Burnage, Manchester; David Annette, 34, of Chorley, Lancashire; John Saunders, 31, of Cumbernauld, Glasgow; and Michael Hindle, 21, Leyland, Lancashire. All are charged with violent disorder.

Airport monitored for hooligans Reported by the BBC

Police will be at the airport until after Wednesday’s game finishes Police are at Manchester airport to prevent known football hooligans travelling to watch England’s friendly against Holland. Greater Manchester Police (GMP) said known or potential troublemakers will have their passports seized and may be be given football banning orders. Uniformed and plain-clothes officers will be at the airport until the game, in Amsterdam, finishes on Wednesday. Det Insp Kevin Fitzpatrick said travellers will be “closely monitored”. The Football Banning Order Authority (UKFBOA) has sent out letters to specific people who are subject to banning orders. They have to report to a police station on the day of the match and surrender their passport. Det Insp Fitzpatrick, of GMP’s Football Intelligence Unit, said: “We are determined to stop known troublemakers from spoiling the enjoyment of matches for genuine fans.”

______

Report by TheBoltonNews.co.uk – pkeaveny@ theboltonnews.co.uk

Friday 7th August 2009

UNDERCOVER police will be looking out for football hooligans after a tip-off about trouble planned for a testimonial match at the Reebok Stadium.

Teams of plainclothes “spotters” will be on hand tomorrow ahead of Jussi Jaaskelainen’s charity match following reports about potential trouble between Scottish and English supporters.

Police in Greater Manchester and Lancashire are warning fans travelling to the Wanderers-v-Hibernian friendly that police operations are being stepped up and that any disorder will not be tolerated.

Bolton football intelligence officer PC Adie Ollerton said there will be spotting teams hunting for known offenders in Bolton and in key areas — such as transport links — in Manchester and Lancashire.

He said: “It is a possibility. We are expecting quite a few of the Hibs fans to come down. Most of them will be good but it is our job to try and find the troublemakers and head off trouble before it starts.”

With fans from Celtic and St Mirren also heading to the region for games with Manchester City and Wigan respectively, In-spector Jo Keay, of Chorley police, said officers were expecting an influx of Scottish fans.

“The majority of people travelling will be law abiding, genuine supporters and we are determined to stop troublemakers from spoiling the enjoyment of genuine fans.”

She warned potential hooligans that they were ready for them, adding: “I would like to send out a very clear message that we have plans in place to deal with them. Any disorder will not be tolerated.”

Crowd favourites from down the years will turn out at the Reebok tomorrow to pay tribute to the goalkeeper when he celebrates 12 seasons with the Wanderers.

Organisers of the charity testimonial have signed up a stellar cast to play in the Legends Match that will serve as a curtain-raiser to the main event — the Wanderers-Hibernian friendly.

Jaaskelainen is donating the proceeds of his testimonial to three local charities: Birtenshaw, Paws for Kids and Miller’s Nook Disabled Riding School.

]]> http://football-hooligans.info/?feed=rss2&p=580 0 http://football-hooligans.info/?p=472 http://football-hooligans.info/?p=472#comments Thu, 06 Aug 2009 17:26:49 +0000 Hooli-Admin http://football-hooligans.info/?p=472 Dons fans in pub tear gas attack Reported by the BBC 6 August 2009 The fans were attacked in the early hours of Thursday Aberdeen fans in the Czech Republic for a Europa League tie have suffered a tear gas attack by football hooligans. Witnesses told the BBC up to 40 fans were in a pub in [...]]]>

Dons fans in pub tear gas attack

Reported by the BBC

6 August 2009

The fans were attacked in the early hours of Thursday

Aberdeen fans in the Czech Republic for a Europa League tie have suffered a tear gas attack by football hooligans.
Witnesses told the BBC up to 40 fans were in a pub in the town of Olomouc when the gang arrived and threw tear gas canisters into the bar.
One fan suffered a minor facial injury, while police have detained two people previously known for football violence.
About 300 Dons fans are in the city for the match against Sigma Olomouc, which the Czech side lead 5-1.
There were minor skirmishes following the incident, which happened in the early hours of Thursday at the Crack Irish Bar, which is owned by 43-year-old Graham Campsie, from Edinburgh.
A spokesman for Aberdeen FC said: “I’ve spoken to a number of the guys who were in the pub at the time and they all got a hell of a fright.
“But other than the effects of the gas itself, there was no damage, thankfully.
“There’s never been any trouble in eight years Graham’s been there and he was also quoted as saying that it was a brilliant night up until then, everybody was thoroughly enjoying themselves, with a good old sing song.”

_____

Aberdeen fans hit by tear gas attack ahead of Europa League clash

dailyrecord.co.uk

ABERDEEN fans were today victims of a tear gas attack in the Czech Republic, the club said.

Around 40 supporters were inside an Irish bar in the town of Olomouc in the early hours of this morning when it was targeted by football hooligans.

The attackers arrived in a car before launching two tear gas canisters into the bar.

The club said no one was hurt, despite reports one fan suffered a minor facial injury.

An Aberdeen spokesman said: “I’ve spoken to a number of the guys who were in the pub at the time and they all got a hell of a fright.

“But other than the effects of the gas itself, there was no damage, thankfully.”

Police have detained two people, the spokesman added.

The incident took place at the Crack Irish Bar, which is owned by 43-year-old Graham Campsie, from Edinburgh.

The Aberdeen spokesman said: “There’s never been any trouble in eight years he’s been there and he was also quoted as saying that it was a brilliant night up until then, everybody was thoroughly enjoying themselves, with a good old sing song.”

Around 300 Dons fans travelled for tonight’s Europa League third qualifying round second leg with Sigma Olomouc, who lead the tie 5-1.

]]> http://football-hooligans.info/?feed=rss2&p=472 4 http://football-hooligans.info/?p=460 http://football-hooligans.info/?p=460#comments Thu, 06 Aug 2009 08:37:41 +0000 Hooli-Admin http://football-hooligans.info/?p=460 Football Violence and Hooliganism in Europe Marsh, P., Fox, K., Carnibella, G., McCann, J. and Marsh, J. (1996) Football Violence in Europe. The Amsterdam Group. Introduction The report contains a review of research and theoretical approaches to football violence in Europe. The historical development of the problems in various countries is outlined. Specific attention is given [...]]]> Football Violence and Hooliganism in Europe

Marsh, P., Fox, K., Carnibella, G., McCann, J. and Marsh, J. (1996) Football Violence in Europe. The Amsterdam Group.

Introduction

The report contains a review of research and theoretical approaches to football violence in Europe. The historical development of the problems in various countries is outlined. Specific attention is given to the role of the media, the emergence of overt racism at football matches and the alleged influence of alcohol consumption on violent behaviour. The content of each section of the report is summarised below.

History

The game of football has been associated with violence since its beginnings in 13th century England.

Medieval football matches involved hundreds of players, and were essentially pitched battles between the young men of rival villages and towns – often used as opportunities to settle old feuds, personal arguments and land disputes.

Forms of ‘folk-football’ existed in other European countries (such as the German Knappen and Florentine calcio in costume), but the roots of modern football are in these violent English rituals.

The much more disciplined game introduced to continental Europe in 1900s was the reformed pastime of the British aristocracy. Other European countries adopted this form of the game, associated with Victorian values of fair-play and retrained enthusiasm. Only two periods in British history have been relatively free of football-related violence: the inter-war years and the decade following the Second World War.

The behaviour now known as ‘football hooliganism’ originated in England in the early 1960s, and has been linked with the televising of matches (and of pitch-invasions, riots etc.) and with the ‘reclaiming’ of the game by the working classes.

In other European countries, similar patterns of behaviour emerged about 10 years later, in the early 1970s. Some researchers argue that a similar ‘proletarianisation’ of the game was involved, but there is little consensus on this issue, and much disagreement on the extent to which continental youth were influenced by British hooligans.

Theory and research perspectives

The major research and theoretical perspectives on football hooliganism derive mainly from British work conducted since the late 1960s. The principal sociological, psychological and anthropological approaches are critically reviewed – including those of Ian Taylor, John Clarke, Stuart Hall, Peter Marsh, John Williams and his colleagues, Gary Armstrong, Richard Giulianotti etc.

There are deep divisions within social science circles concerning explanations of football hooliganism, with often vitriolic debate beween Marxist sociologists, so-called ‘figurationalists’, social psychologists and more empirically oriented researchers. This atmosphere has hindered the emergence of truly multi-disciplinary perspectives.

It is generally agreed that British football hooliganism has probably been over-researched. Despite a general decline in violence at British football matches, the phenomenon still attracts a disproportionate amount of research activity.

Research in other European countries has grown in scale since the early 1980s. The work of German, Dutch and Italian social scientists is reviewed. Much of this research has taken British theoretical perspectives as a starting point, although more ‘local’ approaches are now evident in some countries.

The increase in work in these countries has led to a more Europe- wide approach to the problems of football violence, with a number of collaborative programmes now underway. The level of cross-cultural variation in the patterns of behaviour of football fans, however, presents a number of problems for this kind of research.

It is suggested that the focus purely on behaviour at football games in Europe may be too limiting. The subject might be better considered in the context of the more general rise in juvenile crime and delinquency in many countries and the emergence of new deviant sub-cultures

Cross-national variations

There has been no systematic recording of football-related violent incidents in any European country. The lack of quantitative or reliable empirical data on football-related violence, and particularly the lack of comparable data, makes assessment of the variations and similarities between European countries very difficult, but some general conclusions can be drawn from the available evidence.

It is clear that some form of disorderly behaviour has occurred in virtually every country in which football is played. Disorder of some kind appears to be a near-universal and seemingly inevitable accompaniment to the game.

Football-related disorder is not, however, necessarily of the same nature, or influenced by the same causal factors, in all of the cultures in which it occurs. Even the most dogmatic academics have come to admit that ‘universal’ explanations cannot accommodate all cross-cultural variations.

Both the extent and the nature of football-related violence are influenced by different historical, social, economic, political and cultural factors in different European countries. Social class has been a significant factor in England, for example, religious sectarianism in Scotland and Northern Ireland, sub-nationalist politics in Spain, historical regional antagonisms in Italy, etc.

There are, however, significant cross-national similarities in the ’stages of development’ of the problem. Most countries experience an initial stage of sporadic violence directed mainly at referees and players, followed by a second stage involving violence between opposing groups of fans and against police/security officers inside the stadium, and a third stage involving an increase in violent encounters between these groups outside the stadium.

In most European countries, football-related violence is currently a predominantly internal problem, with the majority of incidents occurring at club-level matches, while supporters of the national team abroad are generally better-behaved. The English are an obvious exception to this rule, and rivalries between some other nations (e.g. Germany and the Netherlands) have led to violence, but these incidents seem recently to have diminished.

Internally, however, fans tend to cause more trouble at ‘away’ matches than when supporting their team at home. This is a common pattern across Europe.

Apart from Britain, the nations currently experiencing the most significant problems of football-related violence are: Italy, Germany, the Netherlands and Belgium. The available data indicate that levels of football-related violence in these countries are roughly similar, with incidents occurring at around 10% of matches (or around 10% of supporters classifiable as ‘violent’).

Austria, Sweden and Denmark also experience some problems with football-related violence, although these appear to be on a smaller scale. In Denmark, a new style of non-violent, carnivalesque fan-culture, promoted by the ‘Roligans‘ (a pun on ‘hooligans’, from ‘rolig’ meaning ‘peaceful’), is gaining popularity.

France, Spain, Portugal and Switzerland have also experienced episodes of violence – although football hooliganism cannot be said to be a major problem in these countries. In France and Switzerland, the theatrical, flamboyant Italian style of support (but largely without the passionate hostilities) has superseded the dour, and more violent, English style.

Sporadic violence has also been reported in Greece, the Czech Republic, Albania and Turkey. Some of these may be isolated incidents, but there is no room for complacency, as these countries may currently be in the early ’stages’ of the development pattern outlined above.

Football hooliganism is clearly not an exclusively ‘British Disease’. Nor can the British hooligans be held entirely responsible for ’spreading’ the disease in Europe. Research findings show that while some of the more violent European fans regard the English hooligans as role-models, others – including the Scottish ‘Tartan Army’ and the Danish Roligans have quite deliberately adopted a very different style of behaviour.

Media coverage

Football hooliganism is a highly visible phenomenon, as journalists and TV cameras are present at virtually every match. Since the 1960s, journalists have been sent to football matches to report on crowd behaviour as much as on the game itself.

As a result, media coverage of football-related disorder and violence is extensive, and the British tabloid press in particular devote apparently unlimited column inches to any incident that occurs, complete with sensationalist headlines.

Many researchers, and many non-academic observers, have argued that this sensationalism, together with a ‘predictive’ approach whereby violence at certain matches is anticipated by the media, has actually contributed to the problem. (In Britain, at least one academic ’school’ regards ‘media amplification’ as the principal cause of the problem.)

The British press have also been criticised for their xenophobic approach to the coverage of international matches and tournaments. (It may be no coincidence that English fans tend to be the most belligerent in these contexts.) This tendency was particularly apparent during the Euro 96 championships, when at least one tabloid newspaper represented the England-Germany match as a resumption of the Second World War.

Although there is no direct equivalent of the British tabloid extremes in other European nations, most researchers have identified problems relating to media coverage of football hooliganism. In all of the countries with significant levels of football-related disorder, researchers have found that hooligans relish the media coverage they receive, and often positively seek it – with rival groups actively competing for column inches and mentions in sensational headlines.

The publicity-seeking tendencies of football fans can, however, be turned to beneficial effect. The extensive and highly positive coverage of the new, non-violent, ‘carnival’ groups such as Scotland’s ‘Tartan Army’ and the Danish ‘Roligans’ has clearly been seen by them as a ‘victory’ over their badly-behaved rivals, and has helped to reinforce and perpetuate their exemplary behaviour.

The influence of the media was highlighted in a recent European Parliament report on football hooliganism, which recommended that the media avoid sensationalism and promote fair-play and sporting values.

We would go further, and recommend a systematic, pan-European media campaign to promote the non-violent ‘carnival’ groups while ruthlessly cutting off the oxygen-of-publicity supply to the ‘hooligan’ groups.

Racism

The true extent of racism among football supporters is almost impossible to quantify. Extensive speculation and debate on the subject is not supported by much reliable empirical data.

For the media and public opinion, however, racism among football fans is a serious problem, and often blamed for outbreaks of violence, particularly at international matches.

Among academics and professionals involved with football, the role of racism and far-right groups in football violence is a hotly debated issue. Some agencies, such as the British National Criminal Intelligence Service, regard their influence as minimal, while others have directly blamed them for violent incidents.

In Britain, racist chanting at matches still occurs, but at nowhere near the levels it reached in the 1970s and 80s, when black players were often greeted with monkey-noises and bananas. The recent decline may be due in part to campaigns designed to combat racism, such as the ‘Let’s Kick Racism Out of Football’ campaign.

Elsewhere in Europe – particularly in Germany and Austria – there are some indications that the problem may be more persistent. In one survey, 20% of German fans reported sympathies with the neo-Nazi movement. In many cases, however, Nazi symbols and slogans may be used purely to shock and provoke, without any underlying political conviction.

The problem is certainly being taken seriously across Europe, and a number of initiatives have been launched, including the ‘When Racism Wins, The Sport Loses’ campaign in the Netherlands, ‘No al Razzismo’ in Italy and the Europe-wide initiative, ‘All Different – All Equal’.

The success of these initiatives is difficult to measure, but the UK has certainly seen a recent decrease in racist behaviour at football grounds. While the existing campaigns in different countries may prove effective, there have also been calls for a more systematic, pan-European approach. A recent report to the European Parliament outlines recommendations for Europe-wide co-operation to combat racism.

Alcohol and football violence

Football violence in Britain is often reported in the media as resulting from excessive alcohol consumption. This view, however, is not shared by the large majority of social scientists who have conducted research on hooliganism. Neither is it the view popularly held in many other European countries.

Little research has focused specifically on the role of alcohol in football hooliganism. This is because it has been considered, at best, a peripheral issue in most studies. Some investigators, however, have recently claimed that drinking can ‘aggravate’ football violence and have supported calls for further restrictions at football grounds. Little evidence has been provided to support their claims.

Proposals for Europe-wide restrictions on the availability of alcohol at football games have recently been made by the European Parliament, although the legal status of such proposals is currently unclear. Such an approach, however, ignores the wide cross-national variations in the consumption of alcohol by football fans and its apparent effects.

The case of Scottish fans, whose behaviour has changed markedly for the better over the past 10 years, despite continuing patterns of ‘heavy’ drinking, is considered in some detail. It is clear that alcohol-related behaviours are not immutable and can change in relatively short periods of time.

The example of the Danish Roligans is also considered. These have drinking patterns very similar to those of English fans, put present few problems to the authorities. Drunkenness among the Danish fans is typically accompanied by good humour and positive sociability.

Other groups of fans, such as the Italian Ultras, rarely drink to excess when attending football matches and the role of alcohol in football violence in that country is thought to be completely insignificant.

Attention is given to a study in the United States which suggests that restrictions on the availability of alcohol at certain times may lead to increased problems due to ‘compensatory’ drinking at higher levels in the periods immediately before and after the restricted period.

It is concluded that restrictions on fans’ drinking will have little impact on levels of hooliganism and, in some cases, may be counter-productive. Future research should be directed towards the modification of alcohol-related behaviours.

Tackling football violence

The approach taken by the British authorities to reducing football hooliganism has been largely reactive – increasingly sophisticated policing, surveillance and monitoring techniques, segregation of fans, restrictions on alcohol etc. The British Government has also introduced specific legislation to cover acts of ‘hooliganism’.

While such measures are evident elsewhere in Europe, the German, Dutch and Belgian authorities, in particular, have been more proactive in their approach to the problem. The development of ‘fan coaching’ schemes appears to have had an impact on levels of violence in certain areas. Such schemes, which involve social workers deployed with groups of fans, provide useful models for other countries.

There is, however, a general lack of initiative from the major football clubs in Europe. While German clubs are involved to an extent in the fan coaching schemes, elsewhere there is little contact between club officials and the fan groups. It is suggested that local ‘fan’s forums’, which allow genuine dialogue between officials and supporters, may help to reduce some of the problems.